THE TRAFALGAR CHRONICLE Dedicated to Naval History in the Nelson Era New Series 9 Journal of THE 1805 CLUB Edited by JUdITHE PEARSONANdJOHNA ROdGAARd In association with The 1805 Club
Text copyright © individual authors 2024 First published in Great Britain in 2024 by Seaforth Publishing, A division of Pen & Sword Books Ltd, George House, Unit 12 & 13, Beevor Street, Off Pontefract Road, Barnsley, South Yorkshire S71 1HN www.seaforthpublishing.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 3990 7808 5 (paperback) ISBN 978 1 3990 7809 2 (epub) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing of both the copyright owner and the above publisher. The right of the individual contributors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, designs and Patents Act 1988. Pen & Sword Books Limited incorporates the imprints of Atlas, Archaeology, Aviation, discovery, Family History, Fiction, History, Maritime, Military, Military Classics, Politics, Select, Transport, True Crime, Air World, Frontline Publishing, Leo Cooper, Remember When, Seaforth Publishing, The Praetorian Press, Wharncliffe Local History, Wharncliffe Transport, Wharncliffe True Crime and White Owl. designed and typeset in Times New Roman by Mousemat design Printed and bound in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Contents President’s Foreword – Admiral Sir Jonathon Band 5 Editors’ Foreword – Judith E Pearson and John A Rodgaard 7 Articles on the 2024 Theme: Naval Intelligence in the Georgian Era Secret Intelligence in the Age of Nelson – Steven E Maffeo 10 A Grand Tour on a Budget: Naval Officers and Intelligence Gathering 25 in the Age of Sail – Evan Wilson Cat and Mouse, Misinformation, Thwarted Plans and Victory that 34 Never was: Nelson and Villeneuve’s Atlantic Chase, 1805 – Andrew Venn ‘A Great and Signal Service’: Admiral Vernon at Porto Bello, 44 November 1739 – Anthony Bruce The Unwanted Coup: James Callander, Spiridon Forestri, and British 55 Espionage in the Ionian Islands during the War of the Second Coalition – Nicholas James Kaizer Admiral Arthur Phillip 1738–1814: Naval Officer, Explorer, Spy, 68 Mercenary, Administrator – Tom Fremantle Featured Monograph on Naval Intelligence The Fortunes and Misfortunes of Baron d’Imbert, 1763–1844: 81 French Naval Officer and Royalist Agent – Natacha Abriat Biographical Portraits The Evolution of British Naval Leadership and decision-Making 107 in the Face of Sickness – david Rothwell
THE TRAFALGAR CHRONICLE The Seafaring Saga of Joshua Penny, 1788–1815 – William S dudley 120 Trafalgar’s Last Survivors – Hilary L Rubinstein 135 Articles of General Interest The War of 1812 in Parliament: Britain’s Naval Operations 146 and the Political discourse, 1812–15 – Kevin d McCranie Facts and Firsts for the United States Navy: Remembering the Cruise 159 of the USS Essex, 1812–14 – Brenden L Bliss The Cost of Wartime Innovation: Copper Bottoms and British Naval 174 Operations during the American War, 1779–83 – S A Cavell The Historical Significance Behind the Name of Villeneuve’s 182 Bucentaure – John Easton Law Who Will Rule? The Struggle for Power in Rio de la Plata, 192 1808–10 – Ricardo Caetano de Moraes Contributor’s Biographies 201 Notes 203 The 1805 Club 224 Colour Plate section between pages 80 and 81
5 President’s Foreword This year’s edition of the Trafalgar Chronicle, in every respect, fulfils The 1805 Club’s mission to ‘inspire greater understanding of the maritime world of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries…in recognizing the role of the sailing navies of the Georgian Period (1714–1837) and promoting their legacy into the modern seafaring age.’ The journal is impressive in the quality and variety of its content and illustrations, and in the expertise of its writers, editors, and publisher, Seaforth Publishing. For this year’s theme of Naval Intelligence in the Georgian Era, the editors invited ‘well-researched tales of intelligence gathering, espionage, secret plots, assumed identities, deception and denial, clandestine operations and intrigues’. Seven contributors did just that, much to the satisfaction of the editors and, I predict, the delight of our readers. Captain Steven E. Maffeo, USN (Ret) graciously provided the lead article, an excerpt from his book, Most Secret and Confidential: Intelligence in the Age of Nelson, defining intelligence gathering in the Age of Fighting Sail. As someone who had years in the naval service as both a consumer of intelligence and one who gathered and reported time-information, I can state that Captain Maffeo’s piece reminded me how little has changed in the methods and sources that produce intelligence; how little has changed except for the enabling technology that gathers and transports information and ‘finished’ intelligence at the speed of electrons. Additional articles provide examples of intelligence gathering methods, espionage, and how naval commanders relied on intelligence in carrying out their missions. Of particular interest is the monograph by Natacha Abriat: a biographical depiction of Chevalier d’Imbert, a French naval officer and royalist agent during the wars of French Revolution and the Napoleonic war who, at one point, worked for the Admiralty, establishing a network of spies in France:
THE TRAFALGAR CHRONICLE 6 a tale of daring covert intelligence and counter-intelligence operations. Other articles cover a variety of topics and take place in at least a dozen locales across the globe. The subject matter will excite any navy historian. How did Royal Navy commanders fulfill their missions when their men became ill from tropical diseases? Who was Joshua Penny and why did he live in a cave for eighteen months? Who were the last survivors of the Battle of Trafalgar? during the War of 1812, how did Parliament react when the Royal Navy lost single ship battles to the fledgling US Navy? How did Admiral david Porter of the USS Essex meet defeat in Valparaiso? What changed when England coppered her ships in the War for American Independence? What is the historical significance of the name Bucentaur, Villeneuve’s flagship at Trafalgar? What female member of the Portuguese royal family conspired with a British admiral to rule Rio de la Plata in South American? Our esteemed contributors hale from seven countries and four continents; all possessing remarkable credentials in their fields of endeavour. They have given our readers quality in their writing styles, creative approaches to content, and thorough research that, no doubt, absorbed countless hours. The Georgian Era brought the world a wealth of maritime art – and in the Trafalgar Chronicle the carefully selected period illustrations add a meaningful and memorable visual dimension to their words. I commend the director of Seaforth Publishing, Julian Mannering and his staff for the well-managed layout of text and pictures and another stunning cover. I look forward to finding out what the editors garner for next year’s theme: Naval Leadership in the Georgian Era. More edifying reading awaits! AdMIRALSIRJONATHONBANdGCB dL Former First Sea Lord President of the 1805 Club
7 Editors’ Foreword ‘Reasonably sophisticated, national-level and naval intelligence’ existed during the ‘Age of Fighting Sail’ and ‘aside from its crude technology and primitive communications, it lacked only the formal, institutionalised, and bureaucratic organizations that began to emerge in the late nineteenth century—which in turn evolved into the modern, extremely technical intelligence communities of today.’ Thus, international intelligence expert, Captain Steven E. Maffeo, USN (Ret) opens this 2024 edition of the Trafalgar Chronicle, which focuses on the theme ‘Naval Intelligence in the Georgian Era’. The article is excerpted from his book: Most Secret and Confidential: Intelligence in the Age of Nelson. Following his paper on ‘Secret Intelligence in the Age of Nelson’ are five more well-researched articles on how Britain’s ‘reasonably sophisticated’, but thoroughly informal intelligence capability, gathered and applied the obtained intelligence to further the strategic and operational objectives of the Royal Navy. dr Evan Wilson of the US Naval War College explains how young naval officers made ‘grand tours’ of the Continent, ostensibly to expand their cultural knowledge so that they could be viewed as gentlemen; but they also observed and sometimes reported on the naval strength of England’s enemies and competitors. Through historian Andrew Venn we learn about Nelson’s use of intelligence in chasing Villeneuve across the Caribbean. Likewise, dr Anthony Bruce describes how Admiral Edward Vernon relied on intelligence in his taking of Porto Bello, Panama. Next topic: spies. Nicholas James Kaizer, a Canadian scholar and teacher gives us a tale of British espionage in the Ionian Islands, while Tom Fremantle elucidates on how Admiral Arthur Phillip (1739–1814) was not only a Royal Navy office, explorer, and administrator of the penal colony that marked the founding of New South Wales; Phillip had also served as a mercenary with the Portuguese, reporting his observations to England. In this edition of the Trafalgar Chronicle we have a first – a featured monograph by Natacha Abriat, director and curator of the Cultural Heritage Research department of the Occitanie region of France. When we issued our Call for Papers last year, and we stated that proposers should send us papers of 3000 to 5000 words in length, we were surprised when Natasha sent us a paper
of over 13,000 words! However, the paper proved such an exciting tale of secrecy, subterfuge, and danger that we had to publish it. It is a biography of Chevalier d’Imbert – a French naval officer and a royalist intelligence agent during the turmoil of the French Revolution and through Napoleon’s and fall. d’imbert’s loyalty to the French monarchy led to his exile in Italy, espionage on the behalf of Britain, and eventual imprisonment in France; a unique perspective on the role of intelligence during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. In our biographical offerings, dr david Rothwell analyses the complexities of naval leadership when a commanding officer must prioritise his mission, glory and riches, and the health of his men. Rothwell’s example is Admiral Sir John Thomas duckworth 1st Baronet, GCB, who, while faithfully fulfilling his mission in the West Indies, also had to countenance the loss of thousands of men due to malaria and yellow fever. He faced a difficult choice between duty and caring for the health of his men. Would you consider his actions typical for the period? Joshua Penny (1788–1815) was an American merchant ship sailor, who was impressed into the Royal Navy and was transferred from ship to ship. He deserted in South Africa, where he encountered additional misfortune. Eventually he took refuge in a cave. How he returned to the US after a nineyear absence is a saga of luck, risk-taking, and hardship. The story comes from award-winning author and historian dr William S dudley, former director of the US Navy Historical Center, now Naval History and Heritage Command in Washington, dC. Who was the last survivor of the Battle of Trafalgar? Several people claimed that distinction. Another award-winning author, dr Hilary Rubinstein from Melbourne, Australia examines the question through her analysis of late nineteenth-century news articles on the subject. Turning to General Interest, this year’s Trafalgar Chronicle garnered five gems. dr Kevin d McCranie of the US Naval War College documents the debates in Parliament during the War of 1812. dr Branden L Bliss of Hawaii Pacific University offers the cruise of the US Frigate Essex, 1812–1814, and her defeat at Valparaiso. dr Samantha Cavell of Southeastern Louisiana University examines the controversy surrounding the coppering of Britain’s ships during the American War of Independence. dr John Law, an expert on Italian medieval and renaissance studies, brings us a riveting tale about how Villeneuve’s flagship at Trafalgar, Bucentaure, acquired her name. Professor Ricardo Caetano de Moraes, of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, gives us a glimpse into the early political wranglings of the Portuguese Royalty concerning who would rule the coastal territories of South America, centering on the Rio de la Plata, 1808–1810. THE TRAFALGAR CHRONICLE 8
What always amazes us, as editors, is the geographic reach of each editions’ offerings, as well as the overlap, in terms of personages and places that figure into these rich tales of naval history. In this issue we have articles taking place on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans as well as four continents. Vernon appears in two articles, as do Nelson and Villeneuve. Four articles mention Napoleon. Three articles center on Central America and South America, while the Caribbean can be found in another three. All of the articles in this edition are stories of war, conquest, courage, and achievement, often, poignantly, at the cost of human conflict, suffering and sacrifice. We are grateful to our contributors who have brought their talents and expertise to bear in these pages. We look forward to bringing you next year’s issue, which will carry the theme: Naval Leadership in the Georgian Era. We welcome ideas, comments, inquiries, and feedback from our readers. If you have an opportunity, please review this edition of the Trafalgar Chronicle in your naval history magazine or newsletter. Some university and college libraries now receive this journal, and if your institution has an interest in doing so, please let us know: contact us at tc.editor@1805Club.org. So now we recommend that you pour a glass of your favorite beverage, pull up a comfy chair, relax, and take your mind on a voyage through the Georgian Era of naval history! JUdITHE PEARSON, PHd BURKE, VIRGINIA JOHNA ROdGAARd, CAPTAINUSN, RET MELBOURNE, FLORIdA EdITORS’ FOREWORd 9
Secret Intelligence in the Age of Nelson Steven E Maffeo Editor’s note: Much of this article is extracted from, and informed by, Captain Maffeo’s book Most Secret and Confidential: Intelligence in the Age of Nelson(Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2000 and 2012; London: Chatham Publishing, 2000). Slightly more narrow in scope than the overall maritime Georgian era (roughly 1714 to 1820), the great ‘Age of Fighting Sail’ – often associated with Britain’s Vice-Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson – essentially ran from 1754 to 1815. Present within this context of the French and Indian War, the American Revolutionary War, the French Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic War and the War of 1812 were fundamental characteristics common to modern, multi-source intelligence. Reasonably sophisticated, national-level and naval intelligence existed during this time and, aside from its crude technology and primitive communications, it lacked only the formal, institutionalised, and bureaucratic organisations that began to emerge in the late nineteenth century – which in turn evolved into the modern, extremely technical intelligence communities of today. At the end of the eighteenth century many countries had created diplomatic information systems, developed cryptography and cryptanalysis, established networks of spies, arranged for clandestine mail interception and opening, and built infrastructures to record, distribute and file the resulting information. This mass of information contained degrees of sensitive material – or secret intelligence. That said, no government differentiated secret intelligence from other information; moreover, most governments essentially regarded all information as their property – secret or not. No distinction existed between public domainand classifiedinformation. It is illustrative to focus upon the British and the Royal Navy to describe and analyse national and naval intelligence during this period. Eighteenth-century British intelligence was organisationally centred in the diplomatic establishment, with an extensive consular network of overseas correspondents. This network was supplemented by a well-funded programme of espionage – along with considerable foreign trade analysis and ship movement information supplied by Lloyd’s insurance marketing association. And, perhaps surprisingly, 10
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